The Use of GM Crops in Developing Countries
Can GM crops make a relevant contribution to solving health problems in developing countries?
4.21 The development of Golden Rice (see case study 4) has been a focus of much public discussion. Strong claims have been made by both proponents as well as opponents, in some cases in the absence of validated empirical evidence. Some see Golden Rice as a prime example of an ineffective ‘technological fix’ and a waste of public and private funds. They argue that access to food should be achieved through reforms in political, economic and social policies rather than through the introduction of biotechnology-based solutions. Others claim that provision of a greater variety of food is the best solution to improving health.20
4.22 Most of the proponents of Golden Rice do not see the crop as a long-term substitute for a properly balanced diet. However green leafy vegetables, which are often cited as an appropriate alternative for the provision of vitamin A, are seldom inexpensive nor available year-round to people in developing countries. In addition, if and when they are available and affordable, several servings are required to provide a desirable level of vitamin A.21 Therefore proponents argue that there is every reason to examine the potential of Golden Rice, and that even small increases in the level of vitamin A could be beneficial.
4.23 An important question is whether the increased levels of micronutrients available from Golden Rice are sufficient to achieve the benefits that are claimed. Assessments depend on a number of factors, including:
(a) the estimated ideal amount of vitamin A to be ingested, usually expressed as recommended daily allowance (RDA);
(b) the levels of ß-carotene produced by Golden Rice; and
(c) the ratio at which ß-carotene is converted into vitamin A when digested. Regarding RDAs, the environmental group Greenpeace assumes that 400 micrograms of vitamin A per day are adequate for a child of between one and three years.
Professor Potrykus and Dr Beyer report that provision of 300 micrograms of vitamin A is an acceptable level. RDAs for adults are estimated to be 50-100% higher.22
4.24 How much Golden Rice would a child have to eat so that VAD related diseases such as blindness and increased risk of mortality would be prevented? Assuming that the sole source of vitamin A would be Golden Rice, Greenpeace estimates an amount of approximately three kilograms of uncooked rice, equalling 7 kilograms of cooked rice.23 The developers of Golden Rice take the view that approximately 200 grams of uncooked rice, or even less, could be sufficient. For the most part this difference can be explained as follows:
- Greenpeace bases its calculation on the assumption that 100 grams of Golden Rice yield 160 micrograms of ß-carotene. This level has been confirmed as robust in the first successful strains of Golden Rice. Greenpeace further estimates that ß-carotene from Golden Rice is converted into vitamin A in the same way as from leafy greens. Accordingly, a conversion rate of 12:1 is assumed. One hundred grams of rice would therefore provide 13 micrograms of vitamin A. To meet the daily requirement of 400 micrograms of vitamin A, approximately three kilograms (13 micrograms x 30) need to be consumed.24
- The developers of Golden Rice consider that the provision of 30-40% of the RDA is sufficient to prevent increased mortality and blindness in children. With regard to conversion rates they draw on data from the Indian Council of Medical Research and assume a rate of 4:1. One hundred grams of Golden Rice would therefore produce 40 micrograms of vitamin A. To attain the minimum daily requirement of 90-120 micrograms of vitamin A, 225-300 grams would have to be eaten.
However, these estimates are based on the first generation of Golden Rice. Research is continuing and the production of significantly increased levels of ß-carotene in comparison to the first generation now seems feasible. For example, a threefold increase yielding 480 micrograms of ß-carotene would be equivalent to 120 micrograms of vitamin A per 100 grams of Golden Rice. This would already be sufficient to cover the daily requirement to prevent VAD-related ill health.25
4.25 Questions about the efficacy and efficiency of Golden Rice clearly depend upon further scientific research. It is particularly important to identify standard conversion rates for the production of vitamin A from ß-carotene in man. We understand that experiments to assess the levels of vitamin A uptake more precisely are being planned, to be led by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Laboratory for Human Nutrition, Boston. These are expected to be completed by the end of 2005. We conclude that it is premature to proclaim that the approach will fail. The need being addressed is an urgent one. It is therefore essential that reliable empirical data from nutritional and bioavailability studies be obtained as a priority. At the same time, in endorsing continuing research on crops such as Golden Rice, we emphasise that evaluation of its cost-effectiveness, risk and practicality in comparison to other means of addressing micronutrient deficiency is vital.26
4.26 The example of Golden Rice raises the question of the appropriateness of regulatory requirements. Regulatory provisions should always be proportionate to the risks implied. Unnecessarily stringent regulations that hinder the development of crops which can substantially improve malnutrition should be avoided (see paragraph 4.41). Costs for regulatory approval are considerable and there is a risk that only large multinational agrochemical companies will be able to cover them. These companies have so far tailored their research programmes predominantly to the needs of farmers in developed countries. Research on crops and traits relevant to the needs of small-scale farmers in developing countries has been mainly undertaken in the public sector. However, the high costs of gaining regulatory approval may deter publicly funded institutions from pursuing such research.
Footnotes21 Conway G (2003) From the Green Revolution to the Biotechnology Revolution: Food for Poor People in the 21st Century. Speech at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars Director’s Forum. 12 March 2003. Available: http://www.rockfound.org/documents/566/Conway.pdf. Accessed on: 10 Oct 2003.
22 Greenpeace (2001) Vitamin A: Natural Sources vs ‘Golden Rice’. Available: http://archive.greenpeace.org/~geneng/reports/food/VitaAvs.PDF. Accessed on: 20 Oct 2003; Beyer P and Potrykus I How Much Vitamin A Rice Must One Eat? AgBioWorld.org. Available: http://www.agbioworld.org/biotech_info/topics/goldenrice/how_much.html. Accessed on: 21 Oct 2003.
23 Greenpeace (2001) Vitamin A: Natural Sources vs ‘Golden Rice’. Available: http://archive.greenpeace.org/~geneng/reports/food/VitaAvs.PDF. Accessed on: 20 Oct 2003.
24 Greenpeace (2001) Vitamin A: Natural Sources vs ‘Golden Rice’. Available: http://archive.greenpeace.org/~geneng/reports/food/VitaAvs.PDF. Accessed on: 20 Oct 2003.
25 Beyer P and Potrykus I How Much Vitamin A Rice Must One Eat? AgBioWorld.org. Available: http://www.agbioworld.org/biotech_info/topics/goldenrice/how_much.html. Accessed on: 21 Oct 2003, see also Bouis H (2003) at the conference Biotechnology and the Poor, 7 Nov 2003, Cornell University, US.
26 Such comparisons would need to consider, for example, estimations of the cost of averting death by means of vitamin A supplements. One study considered data from the WHO and the United Nations Population Division and estimated the average cost per death averted at US$64 in 1999. Supplementation was carried out as an addition to vaccination programmes. However such approaches are hampered by logistical problems. For example, supplements distributed with a vaccine programme only help those who are able to reach the facility where the vaccination is carried out. See Ching P, Birmingham M, Goodman T, Sutter R and Loevinsohn B (2000) Childhood mortality impact and costs of integrating vitamin A supplementation into immunization campaigns, Am J Public Health 90: 1526–9.