The Use of GM Crops in Developing Countries
Is the introduction of GM crops in developing countries consistent with a precautionary approach to biodiversity and human health? continued
4.33 Secondly, research is being undertaken to prevent pollen-mediated transmission of transgenes by ensuring that transgenic DNA is not incorporated in the pollen.36 Such research would be crucial in the case of GM crops used for the production of biopharmaceuticals (see case study 8). Thirdly, although pollen can travel over considerable distances, pollination, and therefore the successful transfer of genetic material, does not always occur.37 Fourthly, appropriate separation distances can be established between fields containing GM and non-GM crops. Research to examine these and other issues is underway in the UK and other countries.38 Where results of such research are not transferable to developing countries, additional research should be undertaken as necessary, to assess the impact of gene flow, particularly in centres of diversity. Finally, we note that many GM crops are male sterile varieties, which means that pollination cannot occur, although pollen may spread widely.39 While these points make it clear that the risks of gene flow need to be assessed on a case by case basis, we recall that gene flow occurs widely throughout nature. Whether or not it is acceptable depends primarily on its consequences. Research to assess such risks is essential.
4.34 The question to be asked must therefore be: what kinds of risks are posed by the transfer of specific genetic material? Are these risks substantial? A necessary condition for answering these questions depends upon whether gene flow has occurred at a measurable level. We note that these two sets of issues are often confused. We accept that the introduction of GM crops in developing countries which are centres of diversity of specific crops may in some cases be problematic. We recommend that in the case of sensitive areas such as centres of diversity, introgression of genetic material from GM crops in related species should be monitored. However, we are not persuaded that the possibility of gene flow should be sufficient to rule out the planting of GM crops in such areas, provided that regulatory requirements are met. Specific risks need to be assessed in particular contexts, and possibilities of safeguarding biodiversity must be considered carefully. The establishment and maintenance of comprehensive seed banks to conserve genetic resources of crop plants and their relatives is of crucial importance.
| The precautionary approach is invoked in order to address the absence of reliable scientific data, as stated in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development: |
| ‘In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.’* |
| The non-binding Declaration was agreed by 178 governments in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. Similarly, Annex III of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (see paragraphs 5.7-5.10) states that: |
| ‘lack of scientific knowledge or scientific consensus should not necessarily be interpreted as indicating a particular level of risk, an absence of risk, or an acceptable risk’. |
| * Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992) The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3 - 14 June 1992. Available: http://habitat.igc.org/agenda21/rio-dec.htm. Accessed on: 21 Oct 2003. |
36 Daniell H et al. (1998) Containment of herbicide resistance through genetic engineering of the chloroplast genome, Nat Biotechnol 16: 345–8; Gray A and Raybould A (1998) Reducing transgene escape routes, Nature 392: 653–4.
37 ACRE (2000) Gene Flow From Genetically Modified Crops Unpublished Report (London: ACRE Secretariat, Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions; Young J et al. (1999) The Risks Associated with the Introduction of GM Forage Grasses and Forage Legumes Report for MAFF (RG0219) Research Project (Aberystwyth: Institute of Grassland & Environmental Research).
38 Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) Farm Scale Evaluations. Available: http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/gm/fse/index.htm. Accessed on: 21 Oct 2003.
39 Pretty J (2001) The rapid emergence of genetic modification in world agriculture: contested risks and benefits, Environ Conserv 28: 248–62.